heart failure

Heart failure affects approximately 64 million people globally and remains a leading cause of hospitalisation and cardiovascular mortality despite advances in therapy. The four pillars of guideline-directed medical therapy, ACE inhibitors/ARNi, beta-blockers, MRAs, and SGLT2 inhibitors, have transformed prognosis in HFrEF. HFpEF management is catching up, with SGLT2 inhibitors, GLP-1 receptor agonists, and novel volume management strategies under active investigation.